The Suez Crisis of 1956: A Turning Point in Global Politics

Introduction to the Suez Crisis 🌍

In 1956, a dispute over the Suez Canal in Egypt led to an international crisis and war. Two fading colonial powers, Britain and France, expected an easy victory over Egypt but were forced into a humiliating withdrawal as the world's new superpowers flexed their muscles. It was a stark sign that the age of European imperialism was over and that a new international order had taken its place.

The Construction of the Suez Canal: A Revolutionary Waterway 🚢

In 1869, world navigation was transformed by the opening of the Suez Canal. This 100-mile man-made waterway through the Egyptian desert cut 5000 miles off the voyage from Europe to Asia, as ships no longer had to sail around Africa. Its construction, overseen by French diplomat Ferdinand de Lesseps, had taken 10 years and cost the lives of many thousands of Egyptian laborers.

The Suez Canal Company, which owned and ran the canal, was a private company owned by its shareholders, including French, Austrian, and Russian investors, as well as the ruler or Khedive of Egypt, Ismail Pasha.

In 1875, to pay off his mountainous debts, the Khedive sold his 44% share in the canal company to the British government.

As the world's greatest imperial and naval power, Britain had initially opposed the canal, seeing it as a potential threat but soon proved to be its greatest beneficiary.

British Control Over the Suez Canal: A Strategic Asset 🏰

Eighty percent of the ships that used the canal were British, and it became a vital link to the British Empire's eastern colonies and the jewel in the crown, India. Control of the canal and the security of Egypt became a vital British strategic concern.

In 1882, when Egyptian anger at European interference in their country exploded into a nationalist revolt led by Colonel Ahmed Urabi, the British sent a military force to intervene.

The Egyptian army was swept aside, and Egypt effectively became a British protectorate for the next 60 years.

British control of the Suez Canal was a major strategic advantage in both world wars. However, in the wake of victory in World War II, the British Empire was in retreat. India, Pakistan, and Burma gained their independence. There were revolts against British rule in Malaya, Kenya, and Cyprus.

Egypt’s Nationalist Movements: A Push for Independence 🇪🇬

Egypt had received formal independence in 1922, but Britain continued to station troops there and govern much of the country's affairs. Only in 1947 did British troops withdraw to the so-called canal zone, under an earlier deal with Egypt's King Farouk that allowed the British to keep bases there until 1956.

Egyptians were turning against Farouk, blaming him for failing to prevent the creation of the Jewish state of Israel and for Egypt's defeat in the Arab-Israeli war that followed.

They also blamed King Farouk for allowing British troops to remain in Egypt.

By 1952, a group of nationalist Egyptian army officers known as the Free Officers Movement had had enough. They seized power in a military coup. King Farouk was forced to abdicate and went to live out a luxurious exile in Italy. The following year, Egypt was declared a republic.

Gamal Abdel Nasser: Egypt’s New Leader 🌟

Colonel Gamal Abdel Nasser emerged as the new leader and president of Egypt. He was a committed and charismatic Arab nationalist determined to free Egypt from foreign influence.

The Cold War Context: East vs. West 🥶

In the 1950s, America and the West were engaged in a standoff with the Soviet Union known as the Cold War. A so-called Iron Curtain divided Europe between communist East and capitalist West. Around the world, each side tried to win friends and limit the other's influence.

Egypt, the largest and most powerful Arab state, would be a valuable prize for either side.

But which way would President Nasser turn?

America’s Dilemma: Arms and Allies 🔫

U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower wanted to win over Nasser but couldn't grant his request for a major arms deal as they would most likely be used against Israel, which had many supporters in the U.S. Instead, the U.S. and Britain offered to fund the construction of the Aswan Dam, the centerpiece of Nasser's plan to modernize the Egyptian economy. Britain also agreed to remove its troops from the Suez Canal zone by June 1956.

The Gaza Raid: A Turning Point 🔥

Border tension between Israel and her neighbors boiled over as the Israeli army attacked Egyptian-controlled Gaza, killing 38 Egyptian soldiers. The Gaza raid made Nasser determined to rapidly strengthen and modernize Egypt's army.

Since the U.S. wouldn't help, Nasser turned to the Soviet Bloc and signed a major deal to purchase modern tanks and aircraft from communist Czechoslovakia.

The deal was seen as a huge triumph across the Arab world. Nasser further antagonized America by establishing diplomatic relations with communist China. For Eisenhower, chasing an alliance with Nasser was proving to be a major headache, and the U.S. and British offer to fund the Aswan Dam was withdrawn. It was a move that would prove to have serious global repercussions that neither Britain nor America ever saw coming.

Nasser’s Bold Move: Nationalizing the Canal 🚩

On July 26, 1956, Nasser stunned the world by announcing that with immediate effect, Egypt would nationalize the Suez Canal Company. "We dug the canal with our lives, our skulls, our bones, our blood," he declared. "The money is ours, and the Suez Canal belongs to us. We shall build the Aswan Dam our own way." Nasser intended to fund the dam himself with profits from the Suez Canal Company. His speech received an ecstatic response from the people of Egypt. Nasser's move was entirely legal; the company's shareholders would be bought out at fair prices. Yet his decision would trigger an international crisis, war, and a new era in the balance of world power.

British and French Fury: The Response 🏴

In Britain, Prime Minister Sir Anthony Eden responded with fury to what he saw as a major attack on British national interests. 15,000 ships a year came through the Suez Canal, and from the Middle East, they brought a vital resource that the British economy couldn't survive without. Eden felt that Nasser had his thumb on Britain’s windpipe.

Eden’s Miscalculation: Comparing Nasser to Hitler 🤯

As Britain's Foreign Secretary in the 1930s and World War II, Eden had made his reputation by opposing appeasement, the policy of trying to maintain peace by giving in to the demands of dictators. However, with poor health and frayed nerves clouding his judgment, he convinced himself that Nasser was another Hitler or Mussolini, an Arab dictator that Britain had to face down. Eden decided that the Egyptian president would have to go. French Prime Minister Guy Mollet agreed with Eden’s assessment. He had an additional reason to want Nasser gone: France was fighting a bitter war in its African colony of Algeria against nationalist rebels trained and supplied by Nasser.

The Secret Alliance: Planning a Military Operation 🤝

Britain and France now secretly began planning a military operation to seize control of the Suez Canal, remove Nasser from power, and reaffirm their status as major global powers. Under American pressure, Eden agreed to host an international conference in a last effort to find a peaceful solution to the crisis.

The Suez Conference: An International Debate 🗣️

Lancaster House in London naturally attracted quite a crowd on the opening day of the Suez Conference. 22 nations were represented; only two countries, Egypt and Greece, had declined the invitation to the fateful meeting.

18 of the 22 nations supported Britain and France's position that the Suez Canal be returned to international ownership. This proposal was turned down flat by President Nasser.

U.S. Secretary of State John Foster Dulles told the British that America would not support an attack on Egypt. Dulles strongly believed that military action against Nasser would push the entire Arab world into the arms of the Soviets. Besides, President Eisenhower was running for re-election and would not welcome the distraction. It was a warning that Eden fatefully ignored. Britain and France had already chosen the path to war.

Israel's First Strike: The Sinai Invasion ⚔️

It was not Britain or France that struck first against Nasser; it was Israel. On October 29, Israeli paratroopers landed in the Egyptian Sinai, seizing the strategic Mitla Pass and paving the way for an invasion by ground forces.

At the U.N., Israel insisted it was acting in self-defense against raids by Palestinian fighters known as Fedayeen operating from bases in Gaza and Sinai.

However, there were no Fedayeen bases in Sinai. Britain and France, claiming to be acting on behalf of the international community, issued an ultimatum to both sides: stop fighting within 12 hours and withdraw all forces 10 miles from the Suez Canal, or they would intervene to enforce compliance. Egypt was effectively being told to abandon the Sinai and the canal.

Israel accepted the terms, but Nasser refused.

The Bombing of Egypt: A Pretext for War 📷

On October 31, British and French aircraft, taking off from carriers in the Mediterranean and bases in Cyprus and Malta, began bombing Egyptian airfields, defenses, and infrastructure.

The Sevres Protocol: A Secret Plan Unveiled 🔒

Israeli Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion had been considering an attack on Egypt for many months. He was encouraged by Moshe Dayan, the hawkish commander of Israel's armed forces. Nasser, like all leaders of Arab states, did not view the new Jewish state as legitimate. Now receiving modern weapons from Czechoslovakia, he was seen as a potential threat to Israel's survival. The French wanted to ally with the Israelis to get rid of Nasser, but British Prime Minister Sir Anthony Eden was anxious about being seen as the aggressor. So, the French came up with an idea. At Sevres near Paris, representatives of Britain, France, and Israel met in secret to plan a war.

Israel would invade Egypt, allowing Britain and France, posing as peacemakers, to issue an ultimatum they knew only Israel would accept.

Then, claiming to be acting to safeguard the canal, they would invade Egypt and overthrow Nasser though they had no real plan for what to do once he was gone.

It would take years for the full details of this conspiracy to emerge.

The Invasion: British and French Forces in Egypt 🌋

On November 5, after a week of bombing, and with Israeli troops winning the battle in Sinai, British and French paratroopers were dropped onto targets around Port Said and Port Fuad, at the mouth of the Suez Canal. Once on the ground, they quickly seized Egyptian airfields and key infrastructure. The next morning, under cover of air strikes and naval bombardment, British and French landings began. Fierce street fighting raged throughout the day, but the Egyptians were massively outgunned, and it proved a one-sided contest. Around 600 Egyptian soldiers and police were killed. British and French deaths totaled just 26. Egyptian civilians suffered most; up to 1,000 lost their lives, with many more left homeless by air raids and shelling.

Sabotage and Backlash: The Sinking of Ships 🚢

By the end of the day, the British and French were in control, but they couldn't prevent the Egyptians from sabotaging the Suez Canal itself. They sank ships in its narrow channel, blocking the canal and putting it out of action for several months. It wasn't hard to see that the British, French, and Israelis were working together, and at the United Nations, world opinion quickly turned against them. For once, the U.S. and Soviet Union were united in condemnation. A typically animated Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev even threatened to fire rockets at Paris and London.

Eisenhower’s Reaction: A Stern Warning from the U.S. 🗽

President Eisenhower thought the invasion had no moral or legal justification, and he was furious with his British ally for going behind his back.

Eisenhower wanted international attention focused on Hungary, where Soviet troops were at that moment brutally crushing a popular uprising.

Instead, Britain and France's reckless intervention was likely to push Arab states closer to the Soviet Union.

In the U.N. Security Council, Britain and France used their veto to block resolutions that criticized Israel's attack on Egypt or their own intervention. But with both world superpowers condemning their attack, they now faced a vote in the General Assembly and the threat of U.N. sanctions.

The Economic Fallout: Britain’s Financial Crisis 💸

Britain's economy had been fragile before the crisis began. Now, market fears caused the British currency to crash, threatening economic disaster. Only a massive loan from the International Monetary Fund (IMF) could save Britain, but Eisenhower blocked any IMF aid until Britain agreed to a U.N.-backed ceasefire in Egypt.

Eden’s Downfall: A Catastrophic End 🥀

Eden, facing growing opposition abroad, at home, and from within his own government, had few options. Just two days after British troops landed in Egypt, they announced a ceasefire. The French, abandoned by their ally, had no choice but to follow suit. Within days, the U.N.'s first major peacekeeping operation got underway as Danish U.N. troops arrived in Egypt to take over from the British and French. As they packed up and re-embarked on their landing ships to return home, it was officially job well done. But in truth, Suez had been a humiliating fiasco. The political leadership had been reckless, the military objectives confused, and as soon as international pressure had mounted up, the British had had no option but to abort the entire mission. That winter, under intense American pressure, Israeli forces also withdrew from Sinai.

The Lasting Impact: Global Consequences 🌐

The Suez Crisis forced Britain and France to accept that they were now second-ranked powers. No longer could they act as they wished on the world stage without first considering the view of the United States.

The lesson taken by the British was never again to jeopardize their so-called special relationship with America.

For France, the lesson was that Britain and America were unreliable allies, and their interests were better served by closer ties within Europe.

Israel’s Gains and Future Conflicts 🚀

Israel achieved some objectives, including the opening of the Straits of Tiran to Israeli shipping, but with Nasser still in power, future conflict with Egypt and its other Arab neighbors was almost certain. The Sinai war proved to be a precursor to the far more decisive Six-Day War fought a decade later.

The Fall of Eden: Political and Personal Collapse 💥

British Prime Minister Sir Anthony Eden's career and health were ruined. He resigned but not before lying to Parliament about his knowledge of the secret deal with Israel. Nasser emerged victorious, at least in the eyes of the Arab world. As the hero of the Arab world for having stood up to European imperialists, Nasser had in reality been saved by U.S. and U.N. intervention. However, his modernizing reforms, championing of the Arab cause, and opposition to foreign intervention mean his memory is still revered by Arabs across the Middle East.

America’s New Role: Dominance in the Middle East 🗺️

The impact of the Suez Crisis on America was perhaps the most far-reaching. The collapse of British and French prestige among Arab nations meant the U.S. would now take the lead in countering Soviet expansion in the Middle East and securing the West’s oil supplies. The Suez Crisis would accelerate U.S. involvement in this volatile region, with consequences stretching well into the 21st century.

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