Wellington's Pyrrhic Victory: The Battle of Vitoria and the Downfall of French Power in Spain

Introduction to the Peninsular Front 🇪🇸

In May 1813, while Napoleon's Grande Armée was embroiled in titanic battles across Central Europe following the catastrophic Russian campaign, approximately 1,200 miles away, another theatre of war was reaching a pivotal moment. In Spain, Field Marshal Arthur Wellesley, better known as the Duke of Wellington, was leading a revitalized Anglo-Portuguese army against the beleaguered French forces occupying the Iberian Peninsula. Previously, Wellington's army had faced a harrowing retreat following their victory at Salamanca and the subsequent stalemate at Burgos. However, by 1813, bolstered by reinforcements, improved logistics, and soaring morale, Wellington was ready to reclaim the initiative.

Wellington's Strengthened Forces 🚀

Winter had given Wellington's army the gift of time—time to rest, reinforce, and train. Emerging from this period, the army stood stronger than ever. Each soldier, a battle-hardened veteran, contributed to a force of 100,000 men. For the first time, Wellington boasted an adequate complement of cavalry and artillery, and the army’s transport and medical services were significantly improved. All these elements combined to create an atmosphere of high morale. "I never saw the British army so healthy or so strong", Wellington informed London confidently. Each presence of their leader, fondly known as "Old Nosey," was a source of cheer for the troops.

French Arithmetic: Miscalculations and Overstretching 📉

By contrast, the French position in Spain was deteriorating. Napoleon, fixated on the central European front, tragically underestimated the threat posed by Wellington. He even withdrew 20,000 French soldiers from Spain to bolster his own forces in Germany, leaving the command structure in Spain dangerously overstretched. King Joseph Bonaparte, Napoleon's brother and the titular ruler of Spain, was acutely aware of the precarious situation. Heeding his advice, Napoleon sanctioned the abandonment of Madrid in favour of the more defensible Valladolid. However, a further withdrawal to the strategic Ebro River was out of the realm of consideration—it would send a detrimental message to neutral Austria and Napoleon's uncertain German allies. Thus, Joseph and his Chief of Staff Marshal Jourdan braced for Wellington's offensive.

Wellington's Strategic Vision 🔍

Wellington's grand strategy involved advancing his army in two wings with the intention of concentrating at Toro before striking at Joseph's forces. In the south, Colonel John Murray's Anglo-Sicilian-Spanish brigade repelled an attack by Marshal Louis-Gabriel Suchet at the Battle of Castalla. Murray's role was to launch a diversionary landing on the Mediterranean coast, coinciding with Wellington's advance, to preclude Suchet from sending reinforcements north. Yet, Wellington's plans extended beyond regular military operations. He had long counted on substantial support from Spanish forces. Unfortunately, political divisions within the Spanish government in Cádiz meant he received direct backing from only a few reliable divisions. Nevertheless, guerrilla warfare provided considerable aid. Well-armed and organized, the Spanish guerrillas operated in larger numbers than ever before. Figures like 'El Fraile' liberated large areas, Espoz y Mina captured major towns, and 'El Empecinado' kept numerous French troops occupied.

The Advance Begins 🚶‍♂️

On the 22nd of May, Wellington bid farewell to Portugal and commenced his advance. Four days later, he arrived in Salamanca and joined forces with Sir Thomas Graham's northern wing. Joseph and Jourdan anticipated an assault from Salamanca and accordingly prepared to defend the Douro River. However, a rapid advance from Graham north of the river flanked them, forcing a retreat. Leveraging small roads and mountain tracks previously deemed impassable by the French, Wellington’s army outmaneuvered their foes. Crucially, British sea power enabled him to switch the supply base from Lisbon to Santander, drastically shortening supply lines. The French, consistently outflanked, fell back to Vitoria in a bid to make a last stand.

The Battle of Vitoria: Prelude to Conflict ⚔️

The Zadorra River valley west of Vitoria appeared defensible. French forces, expecting an assault from the west, were arrayed in three lines: General Jean-Baptiste Drouet's Army of the South in front, followed by General Honoré Gazan's Army of the Centre, and finally General Bertrand Clausel’s Army of Portugal. Joseph hoped to buy enough time for a massive wagon convoy, laden with military assets, government treasury, and treasures accumulated over five years of occupation, to escape to France. Yet, guerrilla intelligence kept Wellington better informed than Joseph regarding Clausel's whereabouts. Knowing Clausel couldn't join Joseph before the 22nd of June, Wellington decided to attack on the 21st.

The Encounter Begins: Tactical Maneuvers 💥

On June 21st, French patrols reported enemy movements to the north, prompting a shift of Reille’s troops to safeguard communication lines. Despite this, French forces remained undermanned due to an odd decision to dispatch a division escorting part of the convoy, thus losing 4,000 men on the eve of battle. Marshall Jourdan, bedridden the previous day with fever, recognized the Army's overextended position with Joseph. But it was too late; Gazan's forces were under immediate attack. Wellington's audacious plan involved attacking with four columns across a 10-mile front, aiming to trap and obliterate Joseph's army. General Graham’s column on the left threatened Joseph's line of retreat, potentially sealing the French forces' fate.

Combat Rages: Clashes at Subijana and Beyond 💣

At 8 AM, General Hill's right-hand column initiated the attack. Spanish and British troops ascended the western Heights of Puebla, dislodging French skirmishers and forcing Gazan to divert reinforcements. Hill's column captured the village of Subijana but advanced no further under sustained French artillery and counterattacks. Mistaking Hill's effort for the primary attack, Jourdan allocated more troops to reinforce Gazan's left flank, just as Wellington intended. However, by 11 AM, Wellington was growing impatient, waiting for the other columns to engage. Delays plagued both Lord Dalhousie’s center-left column, stuck in the mountains, and Graham's cautiously advancing flanking maneuver.

Bridges and Breakthroughs: Zadorra River Crossings 🌉

Colonel Longa’s Spanish division pressed against Durana, leading to fierce combat with Spanish troops loyal to King Joseph, while British and Portuguese forces engaged in bloody street fighting in Gamarra Mayor. Despite driving out the French, the allies couldn’t seize the bridge over the Zadorra, heavily guarded by French artillery. A breakthrough came when a Spanish peasant informed Wellington of an unguarded bridge at Tres Puentes. Immediately, Kempt’s elite light infantry brigade secured the bridgehead. Yet, General Picton, tired of waiting for Dalhousie's delay-stricken seventh division, commanded his Third Division to attack, advancing across Mendoza bridge and a nearby ford, compelling the lightly defended French forces to retreat.

Turning the Tide: French Forces Under Pressure 🔄

By now, Wellington's troops were crossing the Zadorra in force, and fighting intensified on the Heights of Puebla. Scottish Highlanders, Connaught Rangers, riflemen, and Portuguese soldiers stormed the village of Ariñez, routing French defenders and widening a gap between Gazan's and D’Erlon's divisions. As the allied advance placed unrelenting pressure on French flanks, Wellington's army seemed unstoppable. His columns, primed for a decisive blow by 4 PM, faced heavy French cannon fire. The largest artillery duel of the Peninsular War erupted, with over 70 guns on each side. Allied skirmishers exploited the gap in the French lines, shooting down gun crews and leaving Gazan flanked severely.

Collapse and Chaos: The French Retreat 🚨

Unable to maintain cohesion between forces, Gazan ordered a retreat, exposing D’Erlon's flank. Concurrently, Longa's troops secured Durana, panicking the French. D’Erlon's forces fought stubbornly, retreating to another defensive line but once again found themselves outflanked. By 5:30 PM, facing the inevitable, King Joseph ordered a general retreat towards Pamplona along a single, narrow road surrounded by boggy fields. Chaos ensued; military units vied for path dominance through Vitoria, jostling amongst a mass of civilians, wagons stuck in fields, and abandoned treasures.

Springing the Trap: Allied Encounters 🚀

General Reille’s Army of Portugal conducted an organized rearguard action, despite optimism in Wellington's camp for a swift river-crossing maneuver by Graham's column to cut off the French escape. Overestimating enemy strength, Graham took a cautious approach, missing the opportunity to envelop the French rearguard fully. Amidst this pandemonium, allied cavalry fell upon the disorganized French columns, meeting minimal resistance. King Joseph and Marshal Jourdan barely escaped capture amid a sprawling collection of abandoned valuables: priceless art, jewels, even officers' families, and more than 5 million gold francs.

The Aftermath: Victory Marred by Plunder 🏆

In the mayhem of the retreat, many on both sides broke ranks to indulge in plundering. One British officer described the scene: "About dusk, the head of our column came suddenly on some wagons which had been abandoned by the enemy. Someone called out, ‘They are money-carts!’ No sooner were the words uttered than the division broke, as if by word of command, and in an instant the covers disappeared from the wagons, and nothing was seen but a mass of inverted legs, while the arms were groping for dollars; for money, it certainly was. The scene was disgraceful, but at the same time ludicrous." Wellington’s fury over the plundering was understandable. These actions delayed the pursuit of the enemy and squandered vast sums that could have funded his army’s supplies. Of the 5.5 million francs initially captured, only 250,000 were recovered for official use.

Turning Point in Iberia: The End of French Power 🇫🇷

Despite the disordered retreat and the relatively light French casualties, Vitoria was a considerable victory for the Coalition. The allies captured all but two French guns and even Jourdan’s Marshal’s baton. The battle shattered French military power in Iberia, concluding the French-backed kingdom of Spain. Joseph returned to face Napoleon’s wrath, and Marshal Jourdan retired. But replacing them with the competent Marshal Soult couldn't alter the trajectory in Spain. Counterattacks to relieve French garrisons at Pamplona and San Sebastian failed. By autumn, Wellington's relentless advance took him across the Pyrenees and into France. Marshal Suchet, despite prior successes in southern Spain, also had to retreat, leaving just a few isolated garrisons. The Peninsular War—Spain's War of Independence—progressed towards a victorious end for the allies.

The Cost of Conflict: Manpower and Morality 💔

The brutal five-year conflict had exacted a harrowing toll. New research estimates a staggering loss of 260,000 French lives in Iberia, the large majority to sickness. Of the 66,000 combat deaths, 43% fell to Spanish regular forces, 38% to British-led armies, and 19% to guerrilla actions. British military deaths numbered around 52,000, with Portuguese losses at 15,000. The overall Spanish losses might have reached half a million, including numerous civilian deaths. For Napoleon, the intervention in Spain was a strategic blunder—born of hubris and false assumptions, leading to dire consequences. The disaster in Spain coincided with broader challenges as his empire unraveled across Europe. In Central Europe, a climactic clash loomed at the Battle of Leipzig, momentarily overshadowing Wellington's triumphs in the Iberian Peninsula. The events at Vitoria, pivotal and poignant, encapsulate the essence of the Peninsular War—a blend of military prowess, strategic brilliance, and immense human suffering. As Wellington advanced towards France, moving from victory to victory, the broader contours of European geopolitics were dramatically reshaping. Thus ended Napoleon's dreams of empire in Spain, and with every step Wellington's forces took across the Pyrenees, they edged Europe closer to a new dawn, one battle at a time.

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